Greenpeace International Seafood Red list

Greenpeace is asking for urgent action on these species – if retailers and the public care about the state of our oceans, these are the species they should avoid buying.

The fish species are on this list for one or more ofthe following reasons:

• They have a life history that makes them very vulnerable to fishing and there is little or no data available to show that the stocks are healthy and are being fished at a sustainable rate.
• They are commonly sourced from overfished and depleted stocks, or are being fished at such a high rate that stocks are being depleted rapidly
• The fishing methods used to catch the fish are often highly destructive to other oceans creatures and/or habitats.

The Greenpeace ‘Red-Grade’ Criteria for Unsustainable Fisheries provides more detail and background information for the assessment criteria used by Greenpeace scientists, and can be downloaded by clicking on the links on the bottom of this page.

For some of the species listed, there might be a few stocks that are not yet overfished, that are caught with more sustainable fishing methods, and would therefore not be graded red. Same is true for some aquaculture farms. This can be explored by applying the Greenpeace ‘Red-Grade’ Criteria to that particular fishery/farm.

Does this mean that everything not on this red list is sustainable?

No. There are many other types of fish and seafood that are from unsustainable fisheries. The ones on the Greenpeace International seafood red list are the most commonly sold species that supermarkets need to take urgent action on to ensure the future of these species and the fisheries. As seafood markets and consumer preferences for seafood differ from country to country there are specific Greenpeace Seafood Red Lists for many countries. Make sure to take a look at your national Greenpeace website to see if there is a list especially for your country.

See also:

• Greenpeace ‘Red-Grade’ Criteria for Unsustainable Fisheries
• Greenpeace ‘Red-Grade’ Criteria for Unsustainable Aquaculture

The RED LIST

Anglerfish

multiple species
American angler Lophius americanus
Angler Lophius piscatorius
Black-bellied angler Lophius budegassa

 
Anglerfish is caught using bottom trawls or gillnets. Bottom trawling causes significant disturbance to seabed habitats and has high unintentional catch (bycatch) of unwanted and undersized species that are thrown back into the sea dead or dying. Gillnets are associated with a high rate of capture of immature fish that are discarded, and also kill dolphins and porpoises. In the Western Atlantic, anglerfish stocks have been overfished for several years. In the Eastern Atlantic, the stock off Portugal and northern Spain has been depleted for many years and scientists have advised closing the fishery. Under-reporting of catches is a problem in some fisheries in the East Atlantic.

Concerns
Anglerfish is a long-lived species. American angler females reach maturity at age 5 and angler and black bellied angler females reach maturity at age 9-11 years. According to scientists, such characteristics make angler and American angler stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure and black-bellied angler stocks highly vulnerable.

www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.fishbase.org (Lophius budegassa)
www.fishbase.org (Lophius americanus)
www.fishbase.org (Lophius piscatorius)
www.fao.org (Lophius piscatorius)
www.fishonline.org
www.ices.dk
www.fao.org (Lophius americanus)

Tuna

multiple species
Bigeye Thunnus obesus
Northern bluefin Thunnus thynnus
Pacific bluefin Thunnus oritentalis
Southern bluefin Thunnus maccoyii
Yellowfin Thunnus albacares
Albacore Thunnus alalunga

All stocks of all species of tuna are fished at full capacity, and many are declining or depleted. Southern bluefin tuna is listed by the World Conservation Union as being critically endangered, bigeye tuna as vulnerable and northern bluefin tuna as endangered in the East Atlantic and critically endangered in the West Atlantic. Tuna is mainly caught using purse seines or long-lines. These methods are associated with a high unintentional catch (bycatch) of other fish species, as well as endangered turtles, seabirds and marine mammals. If eating tuna, select skipjack tuna that is caught from pole and line or troll fisheries. A further problem with some tuna stocks is iIlegal (pirate) fishing. In some countries, tuna is being farmed in "ranches".

Tuna ranching relies on younger tuna being caught alive from the wild and then kept in cages with artificial feeding. In recent years, ranching has boomed and is putting further pressure on already depleted stocks of wild tuna. Ranching also uses high amounts of other wild fish as feed - about 20 kg of wild fish to produce just 1 kg of tuna.

Concerns
According to scientists, yellowfin tuna has characteristics which make stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure. Albacore, bigeye, northern bluefin, Pacific bluefin and southern bluefin have characteristics which make stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishonline.org (Albacore)
www.fishonline.org (Yellowfin)
www.fishonline.org (Bigeye)
www.fishonline.org (Pacific Bluefin)
www.fishonline.org (Northern Bluefin)
www.fishonline.org (Southern Bluefin)
www.iucnredlist.org
www.fishbase.org (Pacific bluefin tuna)
www.fishbase.org (Yellowfin tuna)
www.fishbase.org (Thunnus obesus)
www.fishbase.org (Thunnus alalunga)
www.fishbase.org (Thunnus maccoyii)
www.fishbase.org (Thunnus thynnus)
www.montereybayaquarium.org (Tuna, Albacore)
www.montereybayaquarium.org (Tuna, Bigeye)
www.montereybayaquarium.org (Tuna, Bluefin)
www.montereybayaquarium.org (Tuna, Yellowfin)
www.montereybayaquarium.org (Tuna, Skipjack)

Volpe J.P (2005). Dollars without sense: the bait for big-money tuna ranching around the world. BioScience 55 (4): 301-302.

Atlantic cod

Gadus morhua

Cod stocks have suffered heavily from overfishing on both sides of the Atlantic. In the major fishing areas for cod in US and Canadian waters of the Northwest Atlantic, stocks have been overfished and continue to be overfished. In the Northeast Atlantic, most stocks are in extremely poor condition apart from the Icelandic and Barents Sea (Northeast Arctic) stocks which are better managed. And, all stocks are classified as being overfished or at risk of being harvested unsustainably. A further concern is that cod are often caught using bottom trawling gear which damages seabed habitats that are important for the survival of many other species and catches and kills unwanted species.

Concerns
Atlantic cod is widely distributed in a variety of habitats from the shoreline down to the continental shelf. Because it is quick to reach maturity (generally at the age of 2 to 4 years, at 5 to 7 for the Icelandic and Barents Sea stocks) and produces many eggs during spawning, it is resilient to fishing pressure. However, constant fishing pressure of US and Canadian stocks has permanently decreased the age and size at maturity of cod and this may negatively effect the number of fish reaching adulthood and their natural mortality.

www.ices.dk
www.fishbase.org
www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.fishonline.org

Sharks

Multiple species, including the following ones:
Schoolshark / soupfin shark Galeorhinus galeus
Shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus
Blue shark Prionace glauca
Dogfish Squalus acanthias

Many shark species are overfished, or are listed as vulnerable, near threatened, endangered or critically endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). An estimated one hundred million are killed every year. Sharks are caught by a variety of destructive fishing methods such as longlining and bottom trawling. These methods are associated with high unintentional catch (bycatch) of other fish species, as well as endangered turtles, marine mammals, and seabirds. Some shark species are caught in sensitive deepwater habitats. Half of all the sharks killed each year are caught accidentally in fishing gear intended for other fish. Some shark species are caught by illegal (pirate) fishing.

Concerns
Generally, shark species are slow-growing, late to mature and give birth to very few young. These characteristics make them very highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.iucnredlist.org
www.fishbase.org (search)

Eel

multiple species - wild and farmed
European eel Anguilla anguilla
Japanese eel Anguilla japonica
American eel Anguilla rostrata

Juvenile eel are called elvers or glass eels, growing eels are called yellow eels and mature eels are called silver eels. Eel is fished at all of these life-stages. However, overfishing has contributed to its severe decline in many regions. Some regulations are now in place to try to aid the recovery of eels. Eel is also farmed, but farming requires juveniles to be taken from the wild to supply stock and this puts further pressure on wild eel populations.

Feeding farmed eels relies on wild-caught fish. It takes over 3 kg of wild-caught fish to produce 1 kg of eel. This increases pressure on marine ecosystems rather than reducing it.

Concerns
American eel and European eel are known to be long-lived and all eels only spawn once in their lifetime. According to scientists, such characteristics make eel stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fao.org (European eel)
www.fao.org (Japanese eel)
www.dnr.sc.gov (American eel) (PDF)
dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca (PDF)
www.fishbase.org (European eel)
www.fishbase.org (Japanese eel)
www.fishbase.org (American eel)
www.fishonline.org
www.natureserve.org
www.ices.dk (PDF 1)
www.ices.dk (PDF 2)
eur-lex.europa.eu (PDF)

Haddock

Melanogrammus aeglefinus

Haddock is often caught together with other fish by bottom trawling. This fishing method unintentionally catches high numbers of other unwanted immature fish and other species that are thrown back into the sea, dead or dying. Choosing line-caught haddock or longline caught haddock that uses "seabird-friendly" methods minimises impacts on the environment. In the Northwest Atlantic in US waters, haddock was overfished until the mid-1990s, which heavily depleted stocks, but overfishing is no longer occurring. In the Northeast Atlantic, scientists consider that stocks are harvested sustainably in the North Sea, Faroes, Rockall, Skaggerk and Kattegat. For the Irish Sea, west of Ireland and the English Channel, scientists have recommended that there should be no increase in catches. For stocks in Northeast Arctic and Iceland, scientists have recommended that better management is needed. Closure of the fishery west of Scotland in 2009 is recomended.

Concerns
Haddock reaches maturity mostly by the age of 3 and can live for up to 20 years. According to scientists, such characteristics make haddock stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishonline.org
www.ices.dk (PDF)
www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.fishbase.org
www.ices.dk (1)
www.ices.dk (2)

Hake

multiple species
European hake Merluccius merluccius
Southern hake Merluccius australis
Argentine hake Merluccius hubbsi Shallow-water
Cape hake Merluccius capensis
Deep-water Cape hake Merluccius paradoxus

In South American waters, Southern hake and Argentine hake are mainly caught using bottom trawling. This fishing method impacts on seabed habitats and has a high unintentional catch (bycatch) of other species. In New Zealand waters, Southern hake is caught in a fishery that unintentionally kills New Zealand fur seals and three species of globally threatened seabirds. European hake is caught with gillnets, longlines, pair trawls and bottom trawls. Gill nets for hake are associated with a high rate of capture of immature fish that are discarded, and also kill dolphins and porpoises. Pair trawls are associated with the unintentional capture of dolphins. There is a northern and a southern stock of European hake in the Northeast Atlantic.

The southern stock has been depleted for many years and scientists have recommended reducing fishing levels. In contrast, the northern stock of European hake has recovered from a depleted state in the nineties. Argentine hake are overfished and juvenile fish predominate in the catch, because older fish are now depleted.

Concerns
European female hake and southern female hake do not mature until they are 7 and 8 years old respectively. According to scientists, these and other characteristics make European, southern and Argentine hake stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishbase.org (Southern hake)
www.fishbase.org (Argentine hake)
www.fishbase.org (European hake)
www.fishonline.org (European hake)
www.fishsource.org (Argentine hake North Of 41ºs)
www.fishsource.org (Argentine hake South Of 41ºs)
www.forestandbird.org.nz
www.ices.dk

Atlantic halibut

Hippoglossus hippoglossus

Atlantic Halibut inhabits both sides of the North Atlantic but has been depleted by overfishing to very low levels. It was classified as being endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 1994 but this needs updating. Halibut is often caught by bottom trawling. This fishing method unintentionally catches high numbers of unwanted species that are thrown back into the sea, dead or dying. Halibut is also threatened because of capture in bottom trawl fisheries for other fish species. Small, immature halibut is caught and killed in this way and there is concern that this is further inhibiting the recovery of stocks.

Concerns
Halibut is slow growing. This fish does not become sexually mature until age 10-14 years and can live for over 50 years. According to scientists, such characteristics make Atlantic halibut stocks very highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. Larger, older females can produce many eggs but it is thought that these large fish are now rare.

www.blueocean.org
www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.fishbase.org
www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca
www.iucnredlist.org
www.nmfs.noaa.gov (PDF)
www.nefsc.noaa.gov

Cheung, W.W.L., Pitcher, T.J. and Pauly, D. (2005). A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing. Biol. Conserv. 124:97-111.

Greenland halibut

Reinhardtius hippoglossoides

Greenland halibut stock levels are at an historic low in waters around Iceland, West Scotland, North Azores, East and SE Greenland, and scientists have advised that fishing should be reduced. Stocks in the North East Arctic (Barents and Norwegian Sea) are also low and scientists have advised that there needs to be a considerable reduction in catches. In some fisheries, catches of Greenland halibut have been above those recommended by scientists. The fishing methods used to fish for Greenland halibut include bottom trawling which impacts on seabed habitats.

Concerns
Greenland halibut females do not mature until 9-11 years old and the species is long-lived. According to scientists, such characteristics make Greenland halibut stocks very highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.greenpeace.org
www.fishonline.org
www.fishbase.org
www.ices.dk (PDF 1)
www.ices.dk (PDF 2)
www.ices.dk (Ices advice)

Hoki

Macruronus novaezelandiae

Fishing methods used for hoki - bottom trawling or mid-water trawling - are associated with problems. Bottom trawling is destructive to sea-bottom habitats. The New Zealand fishery for hoki unintentionally captures hundreds of New Zealand fur seals and seabirds including threatened albatrosses.

Basking sharks, another threatened species, are also taken. The stocks of hoki are now considered to be overfished. In addition, the fishery captures numerous juvenile hoki and this threatens future stocks of hoki.

Concerns
Hoki reaches maturity at age 4-7 years and can live for 25 years. According to scientists, such characteristics make hoki stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.forestandbird.org.nz (Best fish guide)
www.greenpeace.org
www.blueocean.org
www.fishbase.org
www.fishonline.org

Marlin

multiple species
Striped marlin Tetrapturus audax
Atlantic white marlin Tetrapturus albidus
Atlantic blue marlin Makaira nigricans
Black marlin Makaira indica
Indo-Pacific blue marlin Makaira mazara

The main fishing method for marlin is longlining. Striped marlin, Atlantic white marlin and Atlantic blue marlin are mainly caught unintentionally as bycatch in longline fisheries for tuna and swordfish. Longlining unintentionally catches and kills significant numbers of seabirds, including albatrosses. It also kills or injures endangered sea turtles, marine mammals and vulnerable fish such as sharks and rays. There is little information available on some marlin to determine stock levels, but Atlantic white marlin, Atlantic blue marlin and striped marlin are overfished and Indo-Pacific blue marlin is thought to be overfished. Concerns According to scientists, marlin has characteristics that make marlin stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure. Marlin is a large predator in the food chain and large reductions in its population levels have significant implications for the stability of marine ecosystems.

www.fishbase.org
www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.fishonline.org
www.forestandbird.org.nz (Striped marlin)
www.eol.org

European plaice

Pleuronectes platessa

Many stocks of plaice are under high fishing pressure in European waters. Exceptions are the Irish Sea stock and Bay of Biscay stock which are not overfished. Plaice are caught using bottom trawling, often by a method called beam trawling. This technique catches high numbers of other unwanted bottom-dwelling sea creatures. Up to 70% of the catch is unwanted and thrown back into the sea, dead or dying. In the North Sea, plaice is fished along with sole by beam trawling and there is a large catch of undersized plaice - this threatens future stocks. Large, mature plaice is now very rare.

Concerns
Female plaice become sexually mature when they are 4-5 years old and males at 2-3 years old. Plaice is long-lived and can reach up to 50 years of age. According to scientists, such characteristics make plaice stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishonline.org
www.ices.dk (PDF)
www.fishbase.org
ec.europa.eu (Preparation Agriculture/Fisheries Council of December 2006)
www.ices.dk

Cheung, W.W.L., Pitcher, T.J. and Pauly, D. (2005). A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing. Biol. Conserv. 124:97-111.

Red Fish

multiple species
Ocean perch Sebastes marinus
Deepwater redfish Sebastes mentella
Acadian redfish Sebastes fasciatus

These three red fish species occur in areas of the Eastern and Western Atlantic. Ocean perch and deepwater redfish are deepwater species that have been subjected to intensive fishing pressure over the last 10 years. Most stocks are now at historical lows and are considered to be depleted. Scientists have advised that the fishery for these two species in the Barents and Norwegian Sea should be closed, and, the fishery for deepwater redfish east and southeast of Greenland should be closed. The Acadian redfish was classified as an endangered species by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 1996 but this needs updating. Acadian redfish is often fished by bottom trawling which impacts on seabed habitats including coldwater corals. All 3 redfish species are vulnerable to pirate fishing in some areas.

Concerns
These fish are slow growing, long-lived and are slow to reach sexual maturity. According to scientists, such characteristics make Acadian redfish stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure and ocean perch and deepwater redfish stocks highly vulnerable.

www.fao.org (Ocean perch)
www.fao.org (Deepwater redfish)
www.fao.org (Acadian redfish)
www.ices.dk
www.fishbase.org (Ocean perch)
www.fishbase.org (Deepwater redfish)
www.fishbase.org (Acadian redfish)
www.iucnredlist.org
www.fishonline.org
www.fishsource.org
www.high-seas.org
www.fishsource.org

Cheung, W.W.L., Pitcher, T.J. and Pauly, D. (2005). A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing. Biol. Conserv. 124:97-111. UK's Department for International Development (DFID) (2005). IUU Fishing on the High Seas. Impacts on Ecosystems and Future Science Needs. Final Report August 2005. Accessed December 2008 at: http://www.high-seas.org/

Orange roughy

Hoplostethus atlanticus

Orange roughy occurs in "pockets" of the deep oceans worldwide, with commercial fisheries off New Zealand, Australia, Namibia and the Northeast Atlantic. It has been severely overfished and has undergone dramatic population declines in some areas. It is fished over seamounts, steep continental slopes and ocean ridges using bottom trawling gear which has caused considerable damage to sensitive seafloor habitats including corals. There is also concern that some species of deep-sea sharks are caught accidentally in orange roughy fisheries.

Concerns
Orange roughy grows very slowly and is one of the longest-lived fish species known, living for over 100 years. It does not reach sexual maturity until it is 20-32 years of age and female fish produce very few eggs compared to other species. According to scientists, such characteristics make orange roughy stocks highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishbase.org
www.montereybayaquarium.org
www.blueocean.org

Atlantic salmon

Salmo salar

Wild Atlantic salmon stocks in North America, Europe and the Baltic have been over-exploited since the 19th century and have disappeared from many regions all together. Presently, stocks are severely depleted. Salmon is threatened by overfishing, including unintentional capture in other fisheries. Non-reporting of catches can also be a problem In the US, stocks were classified as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 2000 and commercial fisheries ceased.

Concerns The Atlantic salmon spends the first 1-6 years of its life in freshwater, then migrates to the ocean where it spends one to four years before returning to freshwater to spawn. Some die after spawning while others survive to spawn a second or third time. According to scientists, the characteristics of Atlantic salmon make stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.atlanticsalmontrust.org
www.fishbase.org
www.fishonline.org
www.nmfs.noaa.gov
worldwildlife.org
www.greenpeace.to

Tropical shrimp

Multiple species, including the following ones:
Chinese white shrimp Penaeus chinensis
Speckled shrimp Metapenaeus monoceros
Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei
Indian white shrimp Fenneropenaeus indicus
Black tiger shrimp, giant tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon

Tropical shrimp are fished using bottom trawling, which results in a high unintentional capture (bycatch) of other species. The fisheries are responsible for taking 27% of the world's bycatch. For every 1 kg of shrimps captured as much as 10kg of other marine life is thrown back into the sea, dead or dying. The bycatch includes endangered sea turtles. Some fishing vessels employ devices in the nets which aim to help turtles to escape, but many countries do not enforce the use of these devices and no labeling scheme exists which conveys information on their use to consumers. There is considerable concern amongst conservation groups that turtles are negatively impacted by illegal (pirate) shrimp fishing in tropical waters. Farming of tropical shrimp has led to the destruction of vast areas of mangroves in several countries, over-fishing of juvenile shrimp from the wild to supply farms, and significant human rights abuses.

Concerns
Tropical shrimps are quick to reach maturity, short-lived and produce many young. This means they are relatively resistant to pressures of fishing.

www.montereybayaquarium.org
www.greenpeace.org (Aquaculture Report - PDF)
www.fao.org (FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 476)
www.fao.org (Black tiger prawn, giant tiger prawn)
www.fao.org (Chinese white shrimp)
www.fao.org (Indian white shrimp)
www.fishonline.org
www.khalsan.com
www.greenpeace.to (Challenging the Aquaculture Industry on Sustainability - PDF)

DFID (2005). UK's Department for International Development IUU Fishing on the High Seas. Impacts on Ecosystems and Future Science Needs. Final Report August 2005.

Skates and rays

Multiple species, including the following ones
Common or blue skate Dipturus batis
Barndoor skate Dipturus laevis
White skate Rostroraja alba
Spotback ray Atlantoraja castelnaui
Maltese ray Leucoraja melitensis

Many skate and ray populations are now severely depleted and suffer from overfishing and poor management. The status of an increasing number of European species is of great concern and some are listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). Many species of skates and rays are caught by bottom trawling which impacts on seabed habitats and unintentionally catches high numbers of unwanted immature fish and other unwanted species. This bycatch is thrown back into the sea, dead or dying.

Concerns
Skates and rays are slow growing, mature at a late age, and produce only small numbers of young. All of these characteristics make skates and rays high to very highly vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishonline.org (Blonde ray)
www.fishonline.org (Common Skate)
www.fishonline.org (White skate)
www.forestandbird.org.nz
www.iucnredlist.org
www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)

Sole

Solea solea

Sole are manly caught by beam trawling or another type of bottom trawling called otter trawling. Both these techniques impact on seabed habitats. Beam trawling catches high numbers of other bottom-dwelling sea creatures and up to 70% of the catch is unwanted and thrown back into the sea, dead or dying. In the North Sea, beam trawling for sole catches and discards large numbers of undersized cod and plaice. Scientists consider that fishing levels for sole in the Celtic Sea, Western Channel and Skagerrak and Kattegat are sustainable but harvesting levels in the North Sea, Irish Sea, Eastern Channel and Bay of Biscay are at risk of being unsustainable.

Concerns
Sole becomes sexually mature at 3-5 years and the species can live up to 40 years. According to scientists, such characteristics make sole stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.fishonline.org
www.ices.dk (PDF 1)
www.ices.dk (PDF 2)
www.ices.dk (PDF 3)
www.fishbase.org
www.ices.dk

Cheung, W.W.L., Pitcher, T.J. and Pauly, D. (2005). A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing. Biol. Conserv. 124:97-111.

Swordfish

Xiphias gladius

Swordfish is primarily targeted using longlining. This technique unintentionally catches and kills significant numbers of turtles, seabirds, sharks and marine mammals unless special preventative measures are taken. It is a serious threat to turtle populations and seabird populations, particularly to albatrosses. By contrast, handline or harpoon fishing methods for swordfish have little bycatch. Swordfish stocks are depleted in the Indian Ocean and are fully fished in the Mediterranean. Stocks are poorly manged in these regions. North Atlantic stocks were listed as endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 1996 but this needs updating. The South Atlantic stock status is uncertain and only Eastern Pacific Ocean stocks are considered to be relatively healthy.

Concerns
Swordfish is a predator at the top of the marine food chain and has an important role in marine ecosystems. Female swordfish reach maturity around age 5-6. According to scientists, such characteristics make swordfish stocks vulnerable to fishing pressure.

www.iucnredlist.org
www.montereybayaquarium.org (PDF)
www.fishbase.org
www.fishonline.org
www.blueocean.org 

Cheung, W.W.L., Pitcher, T.J. and Pauly, D. (2005). A fuzzy logic expert system to estimate intrinsic extinction vulnerabilities of marine fishes to fishing. Biol. Conserv. 124:97-111.

Toothfish

Patagonian toothfish or Chilean seabass Dissostichus eleginoides
Antarctic toothfish Dissostichus mawsoni

These two large predatory fish species live in the remote Southern Ocean. They are mainly caught by longline fisheries and some bottom trawl fisheries. There have been some significant improvements in toothfish fisheries in recent years – bycatch of seabirds by legal longliners is now minimal, and illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing has been reduced. However, significant concerns remain.

Concerns
Toothfish are slow growing, long-lived species, and for Antarctic toothfish in particular, little is known about its life cycle. This makes effective management of toothfish fisheries particularly difficult – some populations have already been significantly depleted, while the status of many others is unknown. Illegal fishers are still active in the Southern Ocean and research into toothfish markets suggest that the level of IUU fishing has been underestimated. Illegal vessels now appear to be using large scale gillnets, a highly destructive fishing gear that results in very high levels of bycatch, which has been banned in this region. Bottom trawling damages sensitive Antarctic seabed habitats.

Further reading 
Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch report (PDF)
Greenpeace report on toothfish in the Ross Sea 
Traffic’s IUU toothfish report (PDF)